Functions of HSPGs in nervous system development. (A) During neurogenesis, neuroepithelial cells (NECs) act as neural stem cells (NSCs) that proliferate and differentiate in the ventricular and subventricular zones (VZ and SVZ) of the cortex, giving rise to neuronal progenitors (NPs), neurons and radial glia. Several factors required for neurogenesis are regulated by HSPGs: the Fgf2 pathway is controlled by Gpc1 and Gpc4; Sdc1 modulates the canonical Wnt pathway. Perlecan also acts in the extracellular matrix (ECM) to regulate NEC proliferation. (B) During neuronal migration in the cortex, Sdc3 regulates cell migration along radial glia (blue arrows), from the intermediate zone (IZ) to the marginal zone (MZ), by mediating pleiotrophin and EGFR signaling. Sdc3 also acts as a receptor for GDNF and mediates the tangential migration of inhibitory neurons along a GDNF gradient present from the medial ganglionic eminence (MGE) towards the cortex (pink arrow). CP, cortical plate; LGE, lateral ganglionic eminence; SP, subplate. (C) During axon elongation, guidance cues present at the midline, such as Netrin, Slits or Shh, require HSPGs for signaling through their respective receptors DCC, Robo and Patched, both in vitro and in vivo in Drosophila and C. elegans. In vivo in vertebrates, Gpc1 mediates the response of axons to Shh: in pre-crossing axons, Gpc1 interacts with Shh bound to Patched to promote the transcription of specific genes, including that of the Shh receptor Hhip. In post-crossing axons, Gpc1 binds to Shh, triggering a repulsive response through Hhip signaling. (D) During synaptogenesis, pre-synaptic Gpcs, in particular Gpc4, interact with the pre-synaptic receptor PTPσ and the post-synaptic protein Lrrtm4 to promote excitatory synapse development. Gpc4 and Gpc6 are also released from astrocytes and promote synapse formation by clustering post-synaptic AMPA glutamate receptors (AMPARs). On the post-synaptic membrane, EphB2 phosphorylates Sdc2 and induces its clustering. The interaction of Sdc2 with adaptor proteins, such as Cask or neurofibromin, promotes the formation of dendritic spines. (E) At the neuromuscular junction, agrin is released from the nerve terminal and becomes stabilized in the basal lamina. It binds and activates the receptor Musk, leading to AChR clustering via the cytoplasmic adaptor protein Rapsn.
|