Characteristic properties of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs). Physical properties like particle size, solubility, surface chemistry, shape, concentration, and chemical composition, determined at a broad scale to analyze subsequent toxicity caused by them in cell lines (normal/contaminated) and model organisms are summarized in the left panel (highlighted by blue color). The procedures to observe the underlying mechanism of toxicity, immunogenicity, metabolism, bioavailability and biodegradation under different parameters for designing MNPs more specifically for biomedical applications safely are summarized in the right panel (highlighted in orange color). See the Table 1 summary for detailed literature citations.

Potential toxicity effects of magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) collected from in vitro and in vivo experiments. The common strategies for risk assessment for MNPs, including cell culture, zebrafish, chicken and rodents are summarized in the central yellow panel. The potential toxicity effects of MNPs have been categorized by mechanism, such as inhibition of cellular proliferation, temporary/absolute cell cycle cessation, DNA genotoxicity, damage of cellular components and aggregation to blocking of cell membranes on a cellular level. Some studies have reported MNPs’ toxicity effects on a whole organism level and elaborated the interactions of MNPs inside the body (see the summary in Table 1 for detail literature citations).