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Fig. 7 Noradrenergic activity is not required for stimulant-induced c-fos expression and rebound sleep. During waking, the LC releases noradrenalin to brain-wide targets, promoting arousal (Carter et al. 2010) and inhibiting sleep-promoting GABAergic/galaninergic neurons of the POA (Liang et al. 2021). Despite the role of the LC in maintaining arousal and heightened neuronal activity during waking, our results suggest that stimulant-induced neuronal activity and rebound sleep can occur in the absence of prior noradrenergic tone. Building on the work of Reichert et al. (2019), we propose a model in which stimulant-induced increases in neuronal activity subsequently promote activation of GABAergic/galaninergic sleep-promoting neurons of the POA, which drive sleep, independently of noradrenergic activity. Arrowheads denote activating projections; the bar head denotes an inhibitory projection