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Fig. 9 KMU-11361 improved mitochondrial biogenesis and DNA copy number. RAW264.7 cells were pretreated with KMU-11361 for 1 h and subsequently stimulated with LPS for 6 h. A Total RNA was extracted, and mRNA expression levels of PGC-1α, PGC-1β, CS, and Tfam were quantified using real-time quantitative PCR. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001. B Total RNA was extracted, and the relative mtDNA copy number was estimated using qPCR measurement of 16 S, CyB, and HK2 levels in RAW264.7 cells: to determine the 16 S/HK2 and CyB/HK2 ratios. *p < 0.05, ***p < 0.001. C A schematic illustration depicting the intracellular mechanism by which KMU-11361 induces activation of the TAK1/MAPKs/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway in macrophage-like THP-1 and human RA-FLS cells, along with its anticipated therapeutic effects